3.74

ADH regulates water content of blood
ADH = Anti Diuretic Hormone 
Found in a part of the brain (Hypothalamus)
Flows through the body until it reaches the kidneys
Has the ability to alter quantity of water in the blood 
Therefore it can make the blood more or less concentrated 
Describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood.
Targets the collecting duct and makes it more porous 

. 

2.73 Glucose reabsorbtion

Similarly to the water some of the glucose is also lost
This means that it has to be re absorbed
this is done by the promximal convoluted tubule
If there is glucose in the urine however this means the person has diabetes

2.72 Water re-absorbtion

Ultra filtration sometimes filters out to much water

To prevent water loss the water must be absorbed back

This happens when the water passes along the collecting duct 

The water is removed from the filtrate and is absorbed back into the blood vessels 

2.71

Nephron carries out filtration of blood

Ultra filtration = filtration of molecules

Blood comes in and out of the arteriole and causes high pressure

This forces the plasma out of the blood vessel

The blood is filtered by utilizing high pressure 

<iframe width="480" height="360" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/VtCAUly4cdk" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>

2.70 Structure of the Nephron

The lighter outer area is called the cortex

The dark shade in the middle is called the medulla

The light spot in the center is called the pelvic and is wear urine is stored

The bowman’s capsule is the dead end of a tubing structure in the kidney

The tubing structures are made up of twisted sections

A tight knot of blood vessels is known as the glumerous 

Their are millions of Nephrons in a single kidney

They give the kidney its different colour tones 

2.69

·         The urinary system includes the kidneys, bladder, urethras and ureters.

·         Each component has its own individual blood supply

·         The ureters links the two kidneys to the bladder and transfers the urine

·         The bladder is then linked to a structure called the urethra which carries the waste out of the body.

2.68b

·         The kidney carries out a process called osmoregulation

·         Osmo: osmosis & regulation: control

·         Cells in the body are ideally ISOTONIC with the tissues around them

·         This means that the amount of water passing in and out of the cells are equal and therefore the cells stay the same size

·         However the blood that circulates in and out of the cell maybe of a different concentration and therefore cause a HYPERTONIC or a HYPOTONIC solution.

·         Both of these solutions could harm the cells and therefore the most desirable option is an ISOTONIC solution.

·         This is why the composition of the blood has to be controlled and this is done so by the Kidney

·         The kidney can control the composition of the blood by removing excess Water and Salt from the blood and excreting it.

·         By controlling the content of water and salt in the blood the kidney can keep the cells ISOTONIC at all times.

Osmoregulation: Is when the composition of the blood is controlled by the kidneys through excreting waste water and salts to keep the cells in the body Isotonic.  

2.68a:

• The kidneys job is to excrete out waste substances
• Urea is composed of nitrogen which can be toxic to the body
• Nitrogen is usually found around the body in the form of amino acids, these are generally good for the body but can be dangerous when found in large quantities (excess amino acids)
• Amino acids are broken down in the liver to form Urea and is then circulated to the kidneys where the urea is FILTERED out from the rest of the blood stream
• The urea is then added with water to form urine which is then passed down to the bladder where it is ready to be removed
• The filtered blood then returns to the body free of the toxic urea and nitrogen

2.67b:

• In the human body lungs, kidneys and skin are all organs of excretion
• The lungs excrete Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• The kidneys excrete – Water (H2O), Urea (amino acids) and salts
• The skin excretes – Water & salts (through sweating) as well as a small bit of Urea

2.67a

• A leaf photosynthesizes and by carbon dioxide and water to form Glucose and oxygen
• CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
• The oxygen is the waste molecule of the process photosynthesis so the leaf is excreting oxygen as a waste gas
• Respiration is when the leaf uses the glucose with oxygen to produce energy (ATP)
• C6H12O6 + O2  ATP +CO2 + H2O
• In this reaction the molecules that are wasted are carbon dioxide and water and the leaf excretes these out.

2.67a

• A leaf photosynthesizes and by carbon dioxide and water to form Glucose and oxygen
• CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
• The oxygen is the waste molecule of the process photosynthesis so the leaf is excreting oxygen as a waste gas
• Respiration is when the leaf uses the glucose with oxygen to produce energy (ATP)
• C6H12O6 + O2  ATP +CO2 + H2O
• In this reaction the molecules that are wasted are carbon dioxide and water and the leaf excretes these out.

3.33 -3.34

Antibiotics
• Resistance to antibiotics can increase bacteria population
• The resistant form of the bacteria becomes more common and the rate of its survival increases

Causes of Mutation
• Mutation can be caused by radiation (x-rays, gamma rays) and chemical Mutagens (chemicals in tobacco)
• Changes base sequence and forms new harmful alleles
• Cancer is also caused by Mutations

3.32

• Most mutations are harmful
• However some can be beneficial
• Mutation creates new alleles which could be: Beneficial (creates new enzymes), Neutral (no effect at the current time maybe affected by a change in the environment) and Harmful (non-functional enzyme)

3.31 Evolution

Occurs because of Natural Selection
Evolution:
• Change in the forms of Organism
• Change in frequency of alleles
Natural selection:
• Mechanism of evolution
• For example: a virus is susceptible to an antidote but it randomly mutates and can survive the antidote this form of the virus is called the resistant form
• All the versions of the virus which cannot survive the antidote die out and as a result only the mutated ones remain
• It is a Random Mutation But Non-random Selection

3.29 - 3.30

3.29 Variation

Variation = differences

Individual Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

Variation in the population = Variation in the Gene + Variation in the Environment

Their 3 classes of Variation:

·         Discontinuous – When the variation is caused only by gene

·         Continuous – When the variation is caused gene and the environment

·         Environmental variation- when the variation  is caused by only the environment

3.30 Mutation

·         Mutation is rare

·         It changes the base sequence in the gene

·         It can be inherited 

3.20

• Family pedigrees are shown like a tree diagrams with a symbol representing male and another symbol representing female. (For example square is male and circle is female)
• If these symbols are colored/filled in it shows that the person is affected by a disease that may or may not be passed on to the younger generations
• By using methods of trial and error we are able to eliminate and find out which gene caused the disease the recessive or the dominant.
• This is done by taking a sample from the family pedigree and testing the hypothesis for both dominant and recessive gene.

Reproductive organs

3.9a - Male reproductive organ
Structure and uses:

• Bladder - Store Urine 
• Tesis - Meisosis Germinate sperm cells 
• Epididymis - Store Sperm cells 
• Vas deferens - Sends Sperm cells to the penis 
• Prostate - 30% semen 
• Seminal Vesicles - 70% semen 
• Uretha - Common tube, takes semen ou of the penis 
• Penis - Carry sperm cells into the vagina 

3.9b Female reproductive organ 

Structure and uses: 

• Ovary - Meiosis/ produces eggs
• Oviducts - Carries eggs 
• Uterus - wall of uterus made of muscle (stretch for pregenancy)
• Lining of the Uterus - development of embryo/egg
• Uterus Space - Embryo developes here 
•  Cervix - Where sperm cells enter
• Vagina -allows sperm cells to come in  

3.24c Stages of Mitosis

First the cell starts of in the inter phase where the chrmosones begin to replicate thier DNA.
This causes a pair of Chromosomes that are held together by a centremere this is called a Chromatids.

At this point their are 46 pairs of Chromatids in all, which means 92 individual Chromosomes
Then Begins the Prophase where the Nucleus starts to deteriorate revealing the Chromosomes
The late Prophase is when strands of protien start to from, these are called swindle cords
The Chromatids then get attached to the swindle cords through the centermere and they start to shift towards the equator of the cell, this is the Metaphase
The the Anaphase begins and the cells begin to expand and the swindle cords slowly pull the chromatids apart.
After this is the Telaphase where nucleus start to from around the different sets of chromosones and creates two nucleus

Then there is Cyto-Kinesis which is when the two nucleus split out of the cell and create to identical cells

3.24

• Mitosis is when cell divide it self, results in growth
• Results in an increase in the number of cells
• Number of chromosomes in a nucleus is called 'diploid'
• In humans the diploid number of cells is 46
• The cells that are a result of mitosis are identical
• This is because 1. They have the same number of chromosomes 2. Same set of Chromosomes

3.15

Gene is part of a DNA
Defines Characteristics of the organism
From blood group to petal color
In the nucleus

3.14

DNA is a Deoxyribonucleic acid in the form of a Double-helix structure
Found in the nucleus
46 chromosomes
Gene holds genetic information
Proteins produce characteristics

3.1 sexual and asexual

Sexual:
Sex male/female
Gametes which mean that they heave sperm and egg
Meiosis 1/2 chromosomes
Fertilization (fuse)
Produces Variation

A sexual:
No sex
No gametes
Binary fission
No fertilization
Small variation

4.9 Carbon Cycle

• Atmosphere  Photosynthesis (reduces carbon in the atmosphere)
• Photosynthesis Producer  Primary consumerSecondary consumer
• Respiration  Produces carbon dioxide (adds carbon to the atmosphere)
• Decomposition  Death  Break down of molecule  Releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere
• Combustion  fossil fuels burnt  releases Carbon dioxide (industrial and vehicles etc.)
(or natural combustion)

4.14 Enhanced Greenhouse effect

• As the green house gases increases it means that more infra-red light will be trapped therefore more global heating 
• Consequences: 
• Polar ice caps melt causing increase in sea level and change in global water currents 
• Average global temperature effects the habitat of animals, biomes will change and move 
• Ice caps will disappear, deserts will grow. forest will dry up 

4.13 Greenhouse gases

• Human activities cause an increase in green house gases 
• This is because we burn fossil fuels and this causes more green house gases to be released 
• Things such as: Cars, Factories, Homes, Farming (paddy fields and cow farts produce Methane), refrigerating and aerosol cans (produce CFC's)

4.12 Greenhouse Effect

• Uv light is short wavelength with high energy
• When it comes into the atmosphere it gets reflected of the earth's surface back into space as infra-red light 
• Green house gases such as water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide etc trap the infra-red rays 
• Once the heat is trapped the overall global temperature increases 

4.11 Gas pollution

When fuels are burnt toxic gases are produced
Sulphur dioxide:

• Is caused by the burning of coal and oil from factories 
• Sulphuric acid forms acid rain (changes the ph of the water)
• Causes plants leaves to burn and roots to be leached of minerals resulting in no growth 
• Causes lakes to become acidic and reduces oxygen levels suffocating fish

Carbon Monoxide:

• Caused by burning of fossil fuels and coal with insufficient oxygen 
• Is very to toxic to living things especially humans 
• Bonds with the Hemoglobin in the red blood stream and causes oxygen depletion in the blood stream

4.7 Energy Efficient

• Only 10% of Energy moves on from one animal to the next 
• The secondary consumer only gets 1% of the original energy 
• Consumers do not get 100% of the energy because energy is used up in respiration and excretion

4.6 Understand the transfer of substances and of energy along a food chain.

• Producers change the energy from the sun into chemical stored energy that they can use for respiration 
• Chemical energy are lipids, carbohydrates and proteins 
• The producer breaks the bonds in the molecules which contain energy 
• When something eats the producer the enrgy is passed on 

4.5 Food Chains and Food webs

4.5a Food chains
• Food chains=links producer to other consumers
• 1 organism per tropic level
• Cannot show animals that are omnivore, or 2 tropic levels
• Show the flow of matter/energy

4.5b Food webs
• Shows ecosystem
• Shows interaction (feeding) of a community of organism
• Feeding at different tropic levels
• Organisms have multiple predators/multiple prey
• It is a link of many different food chains

4.4 Tropic Levels

• Tropic= to feed
• Producers at the bottom of the food chain(plants etc)
• Consumers are things that eat other things (animals etc)
• Producers change light energy to chemical energy
• Consumers ea the producer and converts chemical energy to their own chemical energy
• 1st consumer= primary 2nd consumer=secondary 3rd= tertiary
• Decomposers= fungi and bacteria (turns them into nitrates and phosphates)

Ecosystem

4.1 Ecosystem
• Describe the community of organism
• Community of organism: Population of different species, no. of individuals in a particular species, Organism reproduction
• Describe the habitat
Habitat: a biotic factors in that area e.g. Temperature, rainfall, daylight non-biological things)
• Eco-system is a community of organisms that interact with one another in a habitat



4.2 Quadrates
• Quadrates are used to estimate the population size of an organism
• Count the number of individuals in the population
• Quadrate = Square grid used to sample an area in the ecosystem
• Count the number of individuals in the quadrate and repeat a number of times
• Used to find an estimate of population size



4.3 Quadrate sampling
• Quadrate Sampling must be a large sample and random
• Grid system
• Generate random numbers (from online/tables)
• Take sample and count number of individuals(e.g. daisy)
• The bigger the quadrate the better
• About 10 quadrates which is 10% of the actual area
• Make a table with the quadrate number and the number of individuals
• Add up total number of individual organisms then divide by the number of quadrates
• Gives up the number of organisms per m2

3.4 Plant Fertilization notes

• Pollen grain on stigma
• Pollen tube grows down to ovule
• Nucleus travels down tube to ovule and fertilize
• Outside of Ovule forms the seed coat
• Catelydons inside ovule (power pack/food storage)
• Thickening of the walls of ovary to make fruit

3.3b Wind Pollination

• Anther  stigma (by wind)
• Pollen grain adaptation-light weight, wing feature to move through air
• Exposed anther (exposed to the wind)
• Stigma with large surface area to catch pollen (feather like structure)
• In addition- no scent, no petals, no color,

3.3a Insect Pollination

• Pollination by insect
• Pollen (male nuclei) transferred to stigma of another flower
• Attraction of insect to the flower is needed
• Signals to the insect (scents, color petals)
• Value to insects (food nectarines/ pollen protein)

2.81 Photo tropism

• Phototropism= Light Growth Response
• Positive= Growth towards light
• Stem grows upwards
• But if light comes from the side the plant stem bends towards the light
• Plant hormone causes this

2.80 Geotropism

• Geotropic= Gravity growth response
• Root growing downwards= Positive Geotropism
• Root going upwards= Negative Geotropism

2.79 Plants and Stimuli

• Plants respond to stimuli
• Changes in the environment E.g. Temperature or Light
• Plants have receptors that detect stimuli and respond
• Response are growth (Tropism)
• Light= Phototropism Gravity=Geotropism

2.54 Transpiration

·        -Evaporation  of water from the surface of a plant

·         -Heat provided by sunlight

·         -Evaporation from the stomatole pores

·         -Phase change occurs in air space in the spongy layer

·         -Water vapor diffuses down the diffusion gradient and through the stomatole pore

How Water is absorbed

Breaching Surface
Root hairs (very small roots)
Epidermal Root
Active Transport
Osmosis